Lift Every Voice And Sing By James Weldon Johnson Essays

Lift Every Voice And Sing By James Weldon Johnson The author of Lift Every Voice and Sing (often called the Negro National Anthem), James Weldon Johnson had a long career as a creative writer, black leader, teacher, lawyer, diplomat, and executive secretary of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Through his writing he protested racial injustice, encouraged black achievement, and added immeasurably to the wealth of American literary art. A native of Jacksonville, Florida, Johnson attended Atlanta University through graduate school. In 1901 he became the first African American admitted to the Florida Bar, but he did not re-main in Florida very long. Forming a creative partnership with his younger brother Rosamond, a writer of popular music, he began to write lyrics. They moved to New York and found fame as the ragtime songwriting team of Cole and Johnson Brothers. and founded a short-lived newspaper called The Daily American. For ten years, he wrote editorials for the New York Age, a prominent African-American newspaper. He was one of the founders and a charter member of the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers, and he became field secretary for the NAACP in 1916. The song was originally written for schoolchildren at an Abraham Lincoln birthday celebration in 1900. The Creation James Weldon Johnson James E. Ransome (Illustrator) Format: Hardcover, 1st ed., 32pp. ISBN: 0823410692 Publisher: Holiday House, Inc. Pub. Date: March 1995 Edition Desc: 1st ed Songwriter, poet, novelist, journalist, critic, and autobiographer. James Weldon Johnson, much like his contemporary W. E. B. Du Bois, was a man who bridged several historical and literary trends. Born in 1871, during the optimism of the Reconstruction period, in Jacksonville, Florida, Johnson was imbued with an eclectic set of talents. Over the course of his sixty-seven years, Johnson was the first African American admitted to the Florida bar since the end of Reconstruction; the co-composer (with his brother John Rosamond) of 'Lift Every Voice and Sing,' the song that would later become known as the Negro National Anthem; field secretary in the NAACP; journalist; publisher; diplomat; educator; translator; librettist; anthologist; and English professor; in addition to being a well-known poet and novelist and one of the prime movers of the Harlem Renaissance. As the first son of James Johnson and the former Helen Louise Dillet, James Weldon inherited his forebears' combination of industrious energy and public-mindedness, as demonstrated by his maternal grandfathers long life in public service in the Bahamas, where he served in the House of Assembly for thirty years. James, Sr., spent many years as the headwaiter of the St. James Hotel in Jacksonville, Florida, where he had moved the family after his sponge fishing and dray businesses were ruined by a hurricane that hit the Bahamas in 1866. James, Jr., was born and educated in Jacksonville, first by his mother, who taught for many years in the public schools, and later by James C. Walter, the well-educated but stern principal of the Stanton School. Graduating at the age of sixteen, Johnson enrolled in Atlanta University, from which be graduated in 1894. After graduation, Johnson, though only twenty-three, returned to the Stanton School to become its principal. In 1895, Johnson founded the Daily American, a newspaper devoted to reporting on issues pertinent to the black community. Though the paper only lasted a year (with Johnson doing most of the work himself for eight of those months) before it succumbed to financial hardship, it addressed racial injustice and, in keeping with Johnson's upbringing, asserted a self-help philosophy that echoed Booker T. Washington. Of the demise of the paper he wrote in his autobiography, Along This Way, The failure of the Daily American was my first taste of defeat in public life. . . . However the effort was not a total failure, for both Washington and his main rival, W. E. B. Du Bois, became aware of Johnson through his journalistic efforts, leading to opportunities in later years. Turning to the study of law, Johnson studied with a young, white lawyer named Thomas A. Ledwith. But despite the fact that he built up a successful law practice in Jacksonville, Johnson soon tired of the law (his practice had been conducted concurrently with his duties as principal of the Stanton

Moral Crusade or Personal Vendetta Essays

Moral Crusade or Personal Vendetta Essays Moral Crusade or Personal Vendetta Essay Moral Crusade or Personal Vendetta Essay Abigail is not the only opportunist in Salem. The Putnams, whose daughter was one of the young women dancing in the woods, also seize the opportunity. Thomas Putnam is a greedy landowner in Salem. He systematically accuses his neighbours of witchcraft so that he might purchase their land after they hang. Like Abigail, there is a hidden agenda guiding Thomas Putnam, namely his greed for land. He too will stop at nothing to satisfy his greed. Miller has incorporated this into the play as The Royal Charter was revoked in 1692 and land ownership deeds became invalid creating a crisis of property rights. Individuals no longer felt secure with their landholdings thus feuds broke out regarding property rights and deeds of ownership. Ann Putnam also used the witchcraft trials for her own means. Mrs Putnam believes that a witch is responsible for the deaths of her seven infant children. She is resentful of Rebecca Nurse who has a large family and who has a reputation for good Christian deeds. Reverend Parris is the minister of the Christian puritan society in Salem. At the start of the play he discovers the girls dancing in the woods. One of the girls is his daughter, Betty, who falls ill after the event, and Abigail is his niece. Therefore, Reverend Parris is terrified of the consequences of their actions. This is more so as he feels that he is unpopular with many of the congregation I have fought here three long years to bend these stiff-necked people to me, and now, just when some good respect is rising for me in the parish, you compromise my very character. Parris has used his sermons to demand money and possessions and thus divided the village. He believes people are plotting against him and a faction plans to force him to leave Salem so he attempts to strengthen his authority through the witch trials thereby using them for his own means. After Parris receives a death threat, and hears of a rebellion against the court in Andover, where there have been similar witch trials, Parris fears that the hanging of two such upstanding citizens as Rebecca Nurse and John Proctor will incite a rebellion in Salem, similar to the one in Andover. The reason he gives is that postponement now speaks of floundering on my part. He is not so much concerned about the lives of those condemned as about his own reputations. To determine if witchcraft is to blame for Bettys illness, Parris summons Hale, a Reverend from the Boston area. Unlike most of the other characters, Reverend Hale has nothing to gain from the trials and executions. He is a well meaning scholar with a reputation for knowledge and expertise symbolised by the many books he carries on entering the play. He also feels he can put the people of Salem at ease regarding their concerns about witchcraft. He does this by exhorting Tituba, the black slave, and the other girls to confess and denounce others to save themselves. When he succeeds he cries, glory to God, it is broken, they are free! Reverend Hale is on a moral crusade, striving for justice unlike many of the other characters. He is impressed by Elizabeth Proctors strong Christian faith. He is critical of John Proctors poor record of attendance at church and is dismayed at finding that John Proctor cannot remember the Ten Commandments. Ironically, the only of the Ten Commandments that he cannot name is, Thou shalt not commit adultery. Although Hale remains determined not to declare witchcraft unless he can prove it, he is taken in by the expectations of the people of Salem and begins by taking their evidence at face value. Later on, however, he attempts to correct his shortcomings when he realizes that Abigail is a fraud. Hale then devotes himself to attempting to persuade the other prisoners to confess in order to avoid executions. However, he does not realise that lies would only reinforce the slanders the court has already committed. Hales faith is severely tested in the play but although he questions his own faith he does not abandon religion altogether. The other character in the play who does not use the trials for his gain is the Deputy Governor, Danforth, who represents the authority of church and state. Danforth refuses to admit possibilities outside the strict confines of the church and he applies the law with a rigid harshness. Although he may be viewed as a villainous character who does not want to open his mind to the reality of the court being duped by a group of teenage girls after signing so many death warrants, he may also be viewed as someone on a moral crusade which results in his ruthless character. Although not on a moral crusade themselves, characters such as Rebecca Nurse and Elizabeth Proctor are morally upright within the community. They are honest and will not confess to witchcraft as they would be confessing to something they had not done. Rebecca Nurse serves as a symbol of goodness and reason. Her character is impeccable, and her reputation flawless. At the outset she dismisses the behaviour of the young girls as part of their adolescence. She makes it quite clear that any searching for the devil based on the behaviour of the girls is, in itself, evil. Elizabeth and Rebecca Nurse show courage and calmness amidst the climate of fear and hysteria. The character analysis of the main people and their motives in the witch hunt trials shows Millers ability to create complex characters. Although Miller wrote a historical play set in the Puritan period, by inference, the McCarthy period, it is essentially a play about people and the human condition. Miller is adept at removing the outer covering of his characters to expose the inner workings as in a crucible. However, the historical setting of the play has affected style of language and the way the play has been written. He comments, No one can really know what their lives were like, neither can anyone know exactly how they spoke. Miller does not claim to have written a historically accurate play but he uses expressions which may have been used by the Puritan community. These include the use of Goody instead of Mrs; Id admire to know, instead of Id like very much to know, and open with me, instead of tell me the truth. Miller also makes some grammatical changes from modern usage; the verb to be is often changed; it were for it was and it be for it is. The tense of a verb is sometimes changed She gives instead of She gave. Furthermore, the West Indian slave, Tituba, is given her own dialect Devil, him be a pleasure, man in Barbados, him be singin and dancin Miller also drops the g at the end of words such as goin, beatin to denote a dialect. To add to the Puritanical setting Miller makes references to events in the Bible. Reverend Hale trying to persuade Elizabeth to confess says I have gone this three month like our Lord into the wilderness. Earlier, speaking of Abigail, Elizabeth Proctor says, where she walks the crowd will part like the sea for Israel. Thus, without claiming to be totally accurate, Arthur Miller has created the impression of a rural, deeply religious society. As well as the language, rooms are sparsely furnished and severe Puritan costumes are used. This creates an austere tone. Moreover, even more important than the language and setting, Miller makes some of the characters morally vocal. People had principles and lived and died by them. Faith, conduct and society pervaded their lives. This is demonstrated particularly by the character of Goody Nurse and also John Procter who works hard to build a defence for those accused and finally decides to die rather than lose his good name by admitting to witchcraft. Miller uses the historical setting as an opportunity to express the dramatic use of hysteria. The general hysteria that spreads through the community of Salem after the first mention of witchcraft is used to induce an atmosphere of anxiety and guilt which brings out superstitious fears. The witchcraft is both caused and fuelled by fear and it is this fear that is the motivating force that leads neighbour to accuse neighbour and generates hysteria. The most powerful and dramatic of these is the girls hysteria when they pretend to be possessed. The climax to this hysteria appears at the end of Act III in the court when reverend Hale feels anguished at the way the witch hunt is being carried out. Despite John Proctors admission of adultery and his wifes lying to deny it, Reverend Hale is prepared to defend them and starts accusing Abigail of falsehood and pretence. This is a dangerous moment for Abigail and the other girls. She starts looking up at the ceiling and screams at a yellow bird which she says is Mary, trying to scratch her face. The other girls gape at the ceiling, seeing the bird, they start repeating every word that Mary says. This has a terrifying hypnotic effect on Mary, and also the audience. The action at the end of this scene is a demonstration of the power of hysteria to paralyse thought. This is one of the dramatic climaxes of the play. The important technique of delaying is used to great effect. To build up a climax, hints, clues and suggestions must be given earlier in the play, many of them left purposely unanswered so that the audience is kept wondering. An example of the way Miller develops climax within an act is Elizabeths fears at the beginning of Act Two; Marys reporting, later in the act, that Elizabeths name had been mentioned in court; Hales questioning of John and Elizabeth until she denies the existence of witches; Giless report that his wife and Rebecca Nurse had been arrested; and the climax to the act, Elizabeth being arrested herself. Millers use of lighting adds another dimension to the symbolism of the novel. The play begins in Act One with the morning sunlight, which streams through the leaded panes of the narrow window. There is a candle which still burns. The atmosphere is dim and dark to signify ignorance and evil. In Act Two, the door opening on the fields outside, must give a feeling of light and space and the stage direction to Act Three, which is the General Court indicates there is sunlight pouring through two high windows. This shows some goodness and truth trying to vanquish ignorance and evil. Act four opens in darkness but for the moonlight seeping through the bars of the cell; but by the end of the act, when Elizabeth grips the bars of the window, the new sun is pouring in upon her face. The word new in this last stage direction is a clue to the effect Miller wants the lighting to create. The narrow minded community cannot shut out the sun and moon. The new sunlight and gentle moonlight are symbols of an unconfined world outside and are emblems of hope in a world gone mad. The light which is a symbol of truth and hope floods in at the end because Proctor chooses to go to his death rather than sign a false confession. In The Crucible, Arthur Miller has created a work set in a historical period of Puritan Culture. He has used themes and events concerning witchcraft, superstition, the devil and fear, which were largely true in colonist America in the 1690s. He has also drawn parallels with the Puritan culture and that of the McCarthy trial during the 1950s. Miller has done this though narrative techniques which contain long comments on the background and on the characters which are given details by use of language, tone and setting. Therefore, this detailed characterisation makes The Crucible much more than a play in two parallel historical settings. It transcends historical backgrounds. Miller has produced a play which explores repression, resolution, fear and the response to it by the human conscience. It is a play in which private grudges and feuding erupts into controversies that overwhelm an entire community. The problems of a single man, according to Miller, are not enough to contain the truth of the human situation. Proctors conscience is the focus of the play. The initial situation of the play is well devised to prevent the social forces that later provide the major conflict for Proctor as he becomes aware of the witch hunts and reveals his temper, his strengths and weaknesses. At times it seems that evil may win over blind justice. Proctor is a proud and strong man whose one mistake causes his own downfall. The relentless forces of evil in this melodrama are inevitable. The balance between order and freedom, which once existed, as displayed by the character of Proctor is being destroyed. Social and personal conflicts are dramatised in his destruction. This is done by fraud and a self-imposed hypnotism on the part of a society in panic. The climax suggests a symbolic end of an era, the waste of human lives and the confused state of a mankind whose personal disaster shatters the balance of the world. Order to this shattered state is restored by the hero making a personal sacrifice. Some of the characters in The Crucible respond by behaving as though they are on a moral crusade and morally upright characters like Rebecca Nurse and John Proctor end up facing dilemmas of conscience and in conflict with authority. They would rather die than lose their good name by signing to witchcraft. However, a majority and insecurity are driven by fear to manipulate the situation for their own purposes and misinterpret events for their own end, until finally the situation and the events are out of control. An atmosphere of hysterical suspicion is created which drives people. Miller has created this. Miller has created this atmosphere in The Crucible by the use of technical features such as characterisation, language, stage directions and lighting.

Human Resource Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words - 1

Human Resource Management - Essay Example 7 Diversity and Employee Retention †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 8 Legal and ethical issues specific to strategic talent management †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 9 Diversity issue at Cityside Financial Service- Case Summary †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 9 The legal issue †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 10 Ethical Issue †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 11 Managing the legal and ethical issues of Diversity †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 12 Conclusion †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 13 References †¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 14 Introduction Successful management especially in today’s increasingly diverse workforce is one of the most important global challenges that human resource management and corporate leaders face. Immigration, employees’ migration and gender, class, religious and ethnic differences continue to dramatically impact the composition of workforce and hence corporate managers are unable to fully comprehend its dynamics and unleash the potential that is embedded in a multicultural working environment. Human capital for no doubt is the most valuable and powerful assets of an organization. Effectively managing the human resources is therefore extremely critical to the success of a firm to help it gain competitive advantages and achieve all other organizational goals. Managing diversity and business-success ar e closely related because, when diversity in an organization can be effectively managed, the outcome will be that the workforce will be very productive, highly satisfied, extremely happier of the working environment. Many of the large multinational companies depend on different types of staffing like ethnocentric, geo-centric and polycentric and all these approaches in turn create more diverse workforce making it harder to effectively manage it. This research paper explains general impacts of diversity on human resources management and organizational development. This paper will detail some specific issues that diversity in an organization can pose for hiring, management, retention and development etc and described legal as well as ethical issues in relation to the strategic talent management at City-side Financial Services. Managing Diversity There have been greater efforts to implement various programs and activities to be used in organizations as part of diversity management. Man aging diversity actually constitutes most important area of global corporate efforts and it can be considered as relatively new organizational paradigm. It encompasses innovative thoughts, evolution and knowledge that management can integrate and incorporate these elements for a better practice of diversity management (Ozbilgin and Syed 2010, p. 1). As Ciscio (2002, p. 121) stressed, managing diversity is establishing and developing a heterogeneous workforce so that employees’ potential can be performed in an equitable work environment, and a member or group of members gain no advantage or disadvantage over others. More specifically, people in an organization may belong to very different age, gender, class, religion, ethnicity, education, culture and social background. Human resource managers are expected to manage them all in equal consideration, as no one among them gains advantage over others. Managing diversity thus ensure equitable work-environment for all its people. Di versity

Case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Case study - Essay Example Then came the contributions of Lee Gordon along with other famous American idols such as Jerry Lee Lewis, Eddie Cochrane, and Gene Vincent whose musical styles helped lay foundations to the pop culture of rock & roll in the country (Jitterbug, 2009). By the start of a new decade in the 60s, a significant number of the youth population in Australia were engrossed about the American ‘Rock and Roll’ which started hitting their airwaves also through artists like Buddy Holly, Chuck Berry, and Bill Haley and His Comets who inspired the Australians to initiate modern popular music recordings (Creswell & Fabinyi, 1999). As one product of this shared genre, Johnny O’Keefe became the first Australian rock star to have notched the first in the charts. Australians further gained appreciation of the ‘Twist’ and the ‘Stomp’ fads, the latter being based on American surf culture and about this time, 'The Beach Boys' earned wider acclaim on touring Aussie populace. Out of this influence emerged the surf rock band Billy Thorpe and the Aztecs. ‘The Beach Craze’ likewise was drawing Australian teenagers to consider spark for surfing and this new heap idea did make it to a trend among the youth at the time who looked up to Midget Farrelly after winning the Surfing World Championships at Bondi aside from the relevant music of ‘The Beach Boys’ and Little Pattie (Batstone & Pyne) which all the more enhanced the ‘Stomp’ fad era. The presence of Bob Dylan and Elvis Presley in the scene of pop culture and world tour served as another blast of sensation for Australian followers of the enduring American ‘Rock and Roll’. Because the American craft with music as such truly bore heights of motivation for the Australians to establish their own identity with rock & roll, the level of enthusiasm rose up in quest of individuals with the right set of potentials. Besides Johnny O'Keefe and Billy Thorpe and the Aztecs, Jimmy Little also managed to have gone the same way, becoming known with ‘Royal Telephone’ (Creswell & Fabinyi, 1999) and these Australian artists obviously adhered or at least exhibited significant inclination to American themes as reflected in the contents of their songs and general outfit thereof. Invasion of Australian culture by the British, in the similar manner, amounted to an equivalent degree of reception marveling at ‘The Beatles’ which essentially made Australians begin weighing options in the market where British and American alternatives coexisted. Billy Thorpe and the Aztecs dominated the Australian Top Ten charts with the Beatles. British acts had turned out to be more influential over the American acts in the long run especially upon the arrival of ‘The Rolling Stones’ to the sellout crowds and such events with the British idols marked the reception of Britain's prevailing ‘Mod’ fad during the mid-1 960s in major cities as Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, and Perth (Creswell & Fabinyi, 1999). ‘Beatlemania’ obtained enormous fanaticism of hundreds of thousands while several other bands from Liverpool like the ‘Merseyside’ (Batstone & Pyne) also made quite a remarkable impression to still numbers after numbers. As another consequence, Australian rock & roll group AC/DC was formed in 1967 through Malcolm and Angus who obtained production support from their guitarist brother, George Young of ‘The Easybeats’ whose pop song ‘

Ways of quitting smoking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ways of quitting smoking - Essay Example year because of smoking related illnesses and cigarettes contain at least 43 cancer-causing chemicals in addition to the poisonous carbon monoxide that’s also inhaled. Every year approximately 46% of regular smokers attempt to quit, with only about 10% being successful in the short term1Research has shown that only 3-5% of smokers are successful using will power alone (Hughes et al, 2004) Smokers have an extremely difficult time to quit cigarettes because of the nicotine contained in the tobacco cigarettes. Nicotine is one of the most addictive substances known to man, and it acts directly on the pleasure centers of the brain by releasing dopamine which causes the individual to feel good, while also reducing anxiety, tension and appetite5.Regular use affects the brains reward system, so that when there is no nicotine, the dopamine levels will fall and withdrawal starts. The main withdrawal symptoms associated with smoking cessation are: These nicotine withdrawal symptoms and not will power are the main reason smokers find it so difficult to quit. Although most symptoms subside within a few days to two weeks, the most troublesome one, the Cravings sometimes can last for years, and that’s is the biggest hurdle. There are many alternatives available to help the smoker quit. The alternatives range from prescription drugs like Zyban (also an antidepressant) and Chantix which is supposed to target the nerve receptors from the effects of nicotine, to â€Å"nicotine replacement therapy† products such as gum, patches or inhalers. Unfortunately these products have had little success in achieving permanent smoking cessation from its users. The other main reason for its lack of success lies directly in the fact that these products provide a very low dose of nicotine administered over a longer period of time ,which is totally opposite to the instant rush of nicotine a smoker feels within 7-10 seconds after inhaling a puff from a tobacco cigarette. So in simple terms,

1948 Arabâ€Israeli War

1948 Arab–Israeli War There were various causes which led to the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, most of which stem from the conflicting views regarding Palestine between the Arabs and Jews. This essay will serve to explain the long term causes, and immediate causes and outcomes of the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. The Arab-Israeli conflict emerged following the end of World War I and the fall of the Ottoman Empire, wherein two separate ethnic groups emerged in Palestine: Arab Palestinians, who traced their ancestry back 3000 years in Palestine; and Zionist Jews, who claimed Palestine as the homeland given to them by God. Zionists believed that the Jews constituted a nation, not just an ethnic or religious community, and called to establish a national home in Palestine. The Palestinians however, felt Palestine was theirs, and desired to establish themselves as an independent state. The legacy of the Arab-Israeli conflict continues after 60 years. The 1948 war can be seen as a triumph and tragedy: triumph for the Israelis and tragedy for the Arabs.  [1]  This essay will investigate and discuss the main causes of the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict, and its immediate outcomes. It will begin by exploring the social, religious and ideological roots of the conflict, and will also provide a contextual background to the war. The establishment of Zionism, the impact of World War I and the role of the British mandate will be explored, in order to understand the separate aims, tactics and motivations of the two groups, and the developments that followed. There will be a focus on the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, the long term and immediate causes of the conflict, and its immediate aftermath and legacy. Contextual Background: The fall of the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire was founded in the 14th century by the Ottoman Turks, and came to include the majority of the countries of the Middle East. Palestine was under the rule of the Ottomans through the rapid military expansion of the empire in the early sixteenth century, and it remained under Ottoman rule for almost four hundred years, from 1516 to 1917.  [2]  Throughout this period, the Ottoman attention was directed to preserving the empire in Europe, to the neglect of Palestine,  [3]  as the province was of very little strategic importance. The conclusion of the First World War resulted in the fall of the Ottoman Empire, and the empire was officially abolished in 1922.  [4]   When the Ottomans joined the Central Powers in 1914 during World War I, the United Kingdom and France plotted the division of the Middle East in accordance to their strategic interests and preferences. The Sykes-Picot agreement of 1916 was an agreement between the governments of France and Britain, defining their respective spheres of influence and control in Western Asia after the expected downfall of the Ottoman Empire during World War I.  [5]  Palestine was eventually placed under British administration. The Zionist Movement and the Persecution of Jews in Europe An important Jewish belief is the anticipation of the Messiah. Klausner defines the Messianic expectation as the Prophetic hope for the end of this age, in which there will be political freedom, moral perfection, and earthly bliss for the people of Israel in its own land, and also for the entire human race.  [6]  This anticipation was fundamental in the creation of Zionism in the late 19th century. According to Tessler, Jewish doctrine asserts that God has granted His chosen people dominion over the Land of Israel, Eretz Yisrael, in order that they possess a country in which to construct their commonwealth based on His law.  [7]  The Jews held Israel as their ancestral and biblical homeland, and the concept of Messianism drove the hopes of the Jewish population for the capture of their Holy Land. As this theory developed throughout the 19th century, the establishment of Jewish colonies in Palestine was a significant step in preparation of a homeland for the Messiah. Zionism w as thus established by Theodore Herzl in the late 19th century, as a movement to create a national home for the Jews in Palestine.  [8]   Judaism is closely associated with nationalism. The basis for the concept of Israel as a state emerged from the Bible and the belief that Eretz Yisrael was promised to the Jews by God. It was believed to be a territory in which the Jews, the chosen people, could live by Gods commandments by building a model state based on His laws, and thereby act as a guide for other states. Zionism emerged from the belief that the coming of the Messiah would not happen in the absence of several preparatory events, including the re-emergence of Eretz Yisrael. Therefore, religion became an important aspect in the foundation of the Jewish state. The 19th century saw a rapid spread of Jewish Nationalism throughout Europe. Judaism set the Jews apart from the rest of Christian Europe, and this religious distinctiveness led to the perception that the Jews were a nation without a state. Thus, the need for Palestine as a Jewish homeland became greater. Along with the nationalist and religious motives in forming a Jewish homeland, there was also the issue of security. During the 19th century, anti-Semitism and the persecution of Jews became widespread in Europe. Herwitt states that throughout their history in Eastern Europe, Jews were confined to small, isolated communities and subject to various attacks, or pogroms. Realizing that life in Russia was intolerable, the Jews looked to acquire territory elsewhere, with many envisioning a return to Palestine.  [9]  One of the benefits of a Jewish homeland would be security for the Jewish nation. Due to the increasing violence and persecution that Jews were subjected to throughout Europe, the Zionist movement continued to grow, encouraging Jews to migrate to Palestine. Due to the widespread anti-Semitism in Europe, the Jews started to consider returning to their religious homeland of Israel and resettling, gaining political control and creating a Jewish state.  [10]   Zionism formed the basis for the creation of Israel: it provided both a nationalistic and religious drive for the Jewish community. The urgency for a homeland continually increased, for both a fulfilment of their spiritual needs, and for the establishment of security for the Jews. The political framework of Europe was unable to provide a place within it for the Jews as a distinct group,  [11]  intensifying the need for the establishment of Israel. This ideology characterized the Jewish community and provided nationalistic ties to a Holy Land that represented their culture, identity and religion. Long Term Causes of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War: Balfour Declaration In 1897, The First Zionist Congress was held in Basel, Switzerland from August 29th to the 31st.  [12]  The congress formulated the Basel Program, and founded the Zionist Organization. The program set out the goals of the Zionist movement, which included various preparatory steps towards achieving its ultimate aim: to create for the Jewish people a home in Palestine secured by public law.  [13]  The Zionist movement continued to rally support for its cause until the First World War. Towards the end of 1916, the British support for the Zionist cause grew significantly. Their assistance in the cause entailed the support of influential Zionists. This support was significant to the British in both their aims to encourage America to enter the war via pressure by American Jews,  [14]  and the support also appealed to Russian Jews, who were influential among Russian revolutionaries,  [15]  as the British feared that Russia would withdraw from the war. Thus in 1917, the British Foreign Secretary, Arthur Balfour, issued the famous Balfour Declaration, which promised the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.  [16]  The Balfour Declaration was the first promise by Britain to give the Jewish people a national home in Palestine. As the Zionists worked to create a Jewish state, the support of one of the worlds strongest powers, which was soon to take over Palestine, was crucial. The Balfour declaration entailed the establishment of a national home for t he Jewish people, while promising to safeguard the civil and religious rights of its majority Arab inhabitants.  [17]   However, during the First World War, Britain encouraged the Arabs to go against the Ottomans and support the British, and in return the Arabs were promised independence. This was agreed between Henry McMahon, the High commissioner in Egypt, and Sharif Hussein of Mecca.  [18]  Through the McMahon-Hussein correspondence, McMahon promised the independence of the Arab countries and their inhabitants, and [British] readiness to approve an Arab caliphate upon its proclamation.  [19]  The promises were not honoured, as they directly contradicted the promises made to the Jews through the Balfour Declaration and between the British and French in the Sykes-Picot agreement. The British Mandate in Palestine, 1922-1948 The Mandate system originated after the conclusion of the First World War. A mandate was a commission given to a nation to administer the government and affairs of another nation, and to prepare them for independence. Advanced countries were to administer the countries on the brink of independence, and to manage their affairs until they were ready to manage their own. Each country was assigned the role of a Mandatory Power, and were supervised by the League of Nations, an international organization established after the First World War. Palestine constituted the spiritual home of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, and the future of Palestine concerned a number of countries and groups. Both the Arabs and Jews had claimed they were promised Palestine; the Arabs through the McMahon correspondences, and the Jews through the Balfour Declaration. These conflicting promises created most of the ongoing tensions. The Sykes-Picot agreement entailed that Palestine was to be under international administration. However, Britain arranged for the League of Nations to make Palestine a British mandate, as it realized that its economic and strategic interests were better served if Palestine came under its direct rule.  [20]   The San Remo conference, held in 1920, decided that Britain would be the Mandatory Power for Palestine. The conference recognized the Balfour Declaration, and to the disappointment of the Arab Palestinians, the declaration was honoured by Britains allies. The declaration was accepted by the League of Nations, and was embodied in the mandate that gave Britain temporary administrative control of Palestine. The provisions for the Mandate entailed that Britain and her Allies were in favour of the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, it being clearly understood that nothing should be done which might prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine,  [21]  and that the Mandatory shall be responsible for placing the country under such political, administrative and economic conditions as will secure the establishment of the Jewish national home.  [22]   The role of Britain in the Arab-Israeli conflict was detrimental to both nations. According to Khouri, British politics frequently did more to aggravate the deteriorating situation than to ameliorate it.  [23]  Britain constantly tried to appease both groups, the Jews and Arabs, living within Palestine under its mandate. Due to heavy Zionist influence, pressure and intense lobbying, it was extremely difficult for the British to pass laws in favour of the Arabs, such as setting aside lands for Arabs and capping immigration by Jews to Palestine.  [24]  Mandatory Palestine formed the construction of the conflict between the two communities of Arabs and Jews, and under the immediate consequence of the removal of the Mandate was the establishment of Israel. Jewish Migration and Land Appropriation The admission of Jewish migration to Palestine increased due to the Balfour declaration and the British mandate, which seemed to promise new opportunities for Zionist development.  [25]  In 1917, the Jewish population in Palestine amounted to 57,000, and constituted 3% of the total population. Despite the influx of Jewish immigration throughout the British mandate, the Arabs still constituted a majority of the population, and by 1940 they accounted for 70% of the total population. There existed a dual society in Mandatory Palestine, and the ethnic make-up of the land included two rival groups: the Jews and the Arabs. Despite their religious differences, the main cause of the 1948 war was the struggle for the land. Palestinian Arabs claimed the land as theirs based on continuous residence in the country for many hundreds of years, and the fact that they represented the demographic majority. The newly established, and slowly growing, Jewish community claimed the land theirs based on Biblical ties to the land and the ideologies associated with Zionism. The immigration of Jews into Palestine was the major source of conflict between the two groups. The increasing influx of Jewish residents into Palestine increased the possibility of the creation of Israel, much to the contempt of the Arabs. Due to Arab resistance, the mandate failed to provide a specific independent Jewish state; thus, the large-scale Jewish immigration could have potentially put Jews into the majo rity. There was a prominent social difference and political separation between the Arabs and Jews. Jewish migration to Palestine and their increased land appropriation met resistance from the Arab inhabitants. Palestine under the British mandate required the Arabs and Zionists to live within the same vicinity, yet the contact between the two communities was limited.  [26]  Each community was driven by increasing suspicion and fear of each other, and this translated into a violent collision between the two groups. Economic, social and political tensions drove the increasing anxiety between the Arab and Jewish communities, which later translated into violence and hostility. Communal violence erupted in 1929,  [27]  and as the years under the Mandate went by, any chance of peaceful co-existence between the two groups was eradicated. According to Khouri, during the mandate the Jews in Palestine enjoyed many formidable advantages over the Arabs,  [28]  including social, political an d economic benefits. This was due to the Jewish advancements and improvements in political and economic maturity in comparison to the Arabs, who in contrast were not as politically or educationally advanced. Musa Alami, a respected Palestinian politician, describes the growing estrangement of Arabs and Palestinians in his biography. As he recounts the increasing hostilities between the two communities, his biography offers a sad testimony to the steadily diminishing chances of cooperation between the two peoples. After returning to Palestine after World War I, in among the growing population of Jews under the British mandate, he found the old friendless and classlessness, the tolerance between the races and creeds had evidently gone forever.  [29]  Shimon Peres, the current president of Israel, describing his encounters with the Arabs as a teenager in the 1930s, states: Our attitude towards the Arabs was mixed. They seemed so strange to us, so terrifying, and yet the creatures closest to nature.  [30]  Both are witnesses to the social and cultural chasm between the Jews and Arabs, and the growing estrangement between the two groups. Immediate Causes of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War: U.N. Partition Vote By the end of World War II, Mandatory Palestine continued to be plagued by problems and complications. Tensions between the Arab and Jewish community persisted, violence between the two intensified, and both groups were continually displeased with the Mandate. By 1946, the situation in Palestine was becoming increasingly unsustainable for the British mandate. The Jewish leadership in Palestine wanted unlimited immigration.  [31]  Tension and violence were escalating between the Jewish and Arab communities, and there was growing resentment towards the British by both groups. Under Arab pressure, the British limited Jewish immigration to Palestine. After the Nazi persecutions in 1933, the immigration of Jews, both legally and illegally, rose to 30% of the total population. By February 1947, the British requested help from the United Nations in reference to the Arab-Jewish conflict, while retaining its mandatory responsibilities. The UN Security Council was asked to investigate the question of Palestine and come up with a plan that would resolve the problem.  [32]  Hence the UNSCOP, the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine, was formed. The UNSCOP consisted of seven neutral countries, which were to investigate the conflict and deliver their findings. The UNSCOP agreed on ending the British Mandate, and the partition of Palestine to a Jewish and Arab state. The Jewish state was to be larger than the Arab state, despite the Arab population of Palestine being the majority; thus, the proposals were denounced by the Arabs. The Zionist General Council expressed some satisfaction with the partition recommendation,  [33]  yet felt that too little territory was assigned to the Jews. The Arabs protested the partition, debating the moral grounds of the plan, and denied the legal and moral right of the UN to partition Palestine against the wishes of the majority of the inhabitants.  [34]  The final General Assembly vote took place on the 29th of November 1947. 33 countries supported the plan; 13 countries voted against the plan; and 10 countries abstained from voting.  [35]  On the 14th of May 1948, the British Mandate in Palestine came to an end; and on the same day, the Jewish population proclaimed the state of Israel, and the Arab states invaded the State of Israel.  [36]   The 1948 Arab-Israeli War The May 1948 Arab-Israeli War commenced following the termination of the British Mandate in Palestine, and the Arab rejection of the United Nations partition plan. The rejection of the plan culminated in five Arab states Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt and Jordan invading the newly formed Israel.  [37]  Their objective was to restore a unitary Arab Palestinian state. Despite the Israeli forces being significantly smaller in number, they were successful in battle and ultimately won the war. According to Beinin Hajjar, the Arab military forces were poorly organized, trained and armed,  [38]  in contrast to the Israeli forces which were superior in these areas. There were various factors which led to the defeat of the Arabs in the 1948 war. The supporting Arab countries all held different motivations and territorial designs on Palestine, with each country distrustful of the others motives.  [39]  The Arab states lacked the unity that was fundamental for their success. The Israeli army exhibited this unity, and were determined in fighting for their liberation, independence and defending their state.  [40]  The Israelis were also better equipped in terms of arms, and were more organized and trained in battle. In 1949, the war between Israel and the Arab states concluded with the signing of the Armistice agreements. Palestine was separated into three parts; each under separate political control, with the state of Israel encompassing 77% of the overall territory.  [41]  The conclusion of the war saw the splitting of the Arab League, the creation of Israel and the loss of British influence in the area. Consequences of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War: The Palestinian Refugee Crisis The 1948 Arab-Israeli saw the victory of Israel, and resulted in the creation of the Palestinian refugee crisis and territorial gain for Israel. In 1947, the year before the war, one million Palestinians lived in the region that would become Israel the following year. Following the war, 75 per cent of them had left to become refugees, and most of them have remained in camps ever since.  [42]   The Palestinians refer to the defeat of 1948 as al-Naqba, the catastrophe. Most of the Palestinian owned land was proclaimed as part of the Jewish state in consequence of the Arab defeat, and the territorial dimensions of Israeli land increased by approximately one-third. According to the Palestinian perspective, the creation of refugees was a result of the forceful tactics used by Israel, as Arabs were expelled from the newly established state of Israel. The evidence used for this viewpoint includes the Dier Yassin, and the concept of ethnic cleansing as employed by the Jews. From the Palestinian perspective, the war represented not only a Palestinian defeat, but also the loss of a large portion of their homeland to Israel.  [43]   The Palestinian diaspora, the forced dispersion of the Palestinians into other countries, is the most catastrophic and distressing consequence of the 1948 war. The impact of the war and the continual confliction between the Arabs and Jews is validated through the refugee crisis. The structural framework of the newly divided State of Israel could not allow the capacity of Palestinians to live in Israel. The diaspora and the refugees forced to depart Palestine are symbolic of the loss of a nation, and the failure of the Arabs experienced through the war. Territorial Gain for Israel While the Palestinians lamented their defeat and exile, the Jewish community were rejoiced with their success in war. Their victory allowed the immigration of more Jews into Israel. Through military force, Israel retained some territory originally assigned to the Arabs according to the partition plan. In 1949, Israel occupied almost 80 per cent of the area of the original Palestinian mandate, and 20 per cent more than she had been promised in the partition plan.  [44]   The most important consequence of the 1948 Arab-Israeli war from the Jewish perspective is that is consolidated the Zionist aim of a Jewish state in Palestine. By the end of the war, the Jewish population in Israel exceeded a million, with Jews all around the world returning to EretzYisrael, their newly established national homeland.  [45]  The Jewish immigration made Israel a viable Jewish state, and forbade a return of Palestinian refugees to claim land and property that once belonged to Palestinians.  [46]  The Jews were motivated by Zionism, creating a Jewish state of Israel in their biblical home land of Palestine. Zionisms success is manifested in the establishment of the State of Israel and the territorial gain of the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. Conclusion: This essay served to discuss the long term causes, and immediate causes and outcomes of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. The 1948 war was the first full-scale war between the Arab states and the Jewish population, and resulted after a series of conflicts between the Arabs and Jews over Palestine. The long term causes of the war gave rise to increasing tensions and hostilities between the Arabs and Jews, and the U.N. Partition Plan of 1947 ignited the flame. The culmination of the war saw a great victory for Israel, in terms of territorial increase and national pride, and loss of land and pride for the Arabs. The Arab-Israeli war of 1948 represents two drastic turning points in two colliding communities. After decades of continual confliction and increasing antagonism between the two groups, the conclusion of the 1948 war saw the creation of a new state, after the outbreak of a bloody and long-running conflict. The war has two completely different outlooks. For the Jews, the war is celebrated and represents the re-creation of a Jewish state in Palestine. For the Arabs, the war represents a political and psychological failure and defeat. The prospect for creating a Jewish state in Palestine was won, and the hopes for the re-obtainment of Palestine for the Arabs were lost. The Palestinians were scattered around the Middle East and Arabia after the war, while Jews around the world were able to return to their homeland of Israel. As reported by Jamal Abdul Nasser in 1963, the Palestinian battle was a smear on the entire Arab nation. No one can forget the shame brought by the battle of 1948.  [47]  Despite the thwarted nationalist aspirations of the Palestinians, the war also represented a grave military defeat and significant loss of land to Israel. This is displayed through the Jewish diaspora, and the refugee crisis of the Palestinian peoples that is still in continuation today. The territory awarded to Israel represents their establishment of the main aims of Zionism, and their national success that is celebrated in the legacy of the war. The 1948 war led to a series of wars and conflicts between the two groups. After decades of conflict, multiple wars and millions of casualties, the conflict between the two communities ceases to stop. The Arab-Israeli conflict is still in continuation today, taking international dimensions and influencing a string of other countries and nations. If the Arab-Israeli conflict is resolved peacefully and permanently, many other conflicts will be resolved automatically. Peace talks have been considered for decades, but no clear resolutions have been created, with the various obstacles to peace clouding the prospect of the two groups living harmoniously. References: Work Cited: Books Antonius, G. 1938, The Arab Awakening: The Story of the Arab National Movement, Simon Publications, New York. Cannon, M. 2009, IB Course Companion: 20th Century World History, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Davis, M. 1980, Zionism in Transition, Arno Press, New York. Habibi, M. 2010, IB Course Companion: History of Europe and the Middle East, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Hall, E. Wilson, L. 2006, Power, people and ideas: VCE international politics units 1 2 (2rd ed.), Social Education Victoria, Melbourne. Harkabi, Y. 1974, Arab attitudes to Israel, Halsted Press, New York. Khatib, H. 2003, Palestine and Egypt Under the Ottomans: Paintings, Books, Photographs, Maps and Manuscripts, I.B. Tauris Publishers, London. Klausner, J. 1956, The Messianic Idea in Israel: From its Beginning to the Completion of the Mishnah, G. Allen Unwin, London Morris, B. 2004, The birth of the Palestinian refugee problem revisited, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. OsmaÅ„czyk, E. J. Mango, A. 2003, Encyclopaedia of the United Nations and International Agreements: A to F, Routledge, New York. Robinson, G. 2000, Essential Judaism: a complete g

Gabriel Prosser :: essays research papers

â€Å" The sky flushed as they put him in the cart, and suddenly Gabriel thought of others, the ones who were to follow him, the ones who waited in their cells because of his leadership, these and others, others, and still others, a world of others who were to follow†( Gabriel’s Rebellion). Gabriel Prosser was a slave leader who in 1800 proposed a plan to liberate slaves. Gabriel drew up a plan to free his fellow slaves in Richmond, Virginia and the surrounding countryside. Gabriel was a blacksmith, working in Brookfield and in Richmond, who had learned to read and write. He was inspired by the declarations of freedom during the Revolutionary War. During the late spring and early summer of 1800 he made a plan of revolt and had hundreds of followers to back him up, including his two brothers, Martin and Solomon. His plan called for a band of armed slaves, mainly black and white laborers and artisans, to enter Richmond, Virginia and burn down the business district, take the governor as hostage and seize whatever arms they could. Then the black slaves would win there freedom. However, on August 13, 1800, the day planned for the revolt, an unusually violent storm broke out, washing out bridges and roads and stopping all travel. They could not reach Richmond. Also, slaves Tom and Pharoah informed there master. He brought the news to the governor, James Monroe, who had a guard placed at every marked spot for attack, called out state militia, and ordered a series of arrests. By September fifteenth, ten people included in the open revolt were hanged. Gabriel was captured on September twenty fourth and hanged on October seventh, his execution having been delayed twice in hopes that he would make a confession. In all thirty six people were caught and hanged. Many other uprisings followed this one. Although, the carefully planned uprising never took place it left fear in the hearts of whites and pride in the hearts of blacks. As a result of Gabriel’s uprising whites who had previously spoken on behalf of the slaves found themselves silenced in the Upper South. White Southerners who favored the colonization of blacks, sending them to Africa, received more widespread support. The plot revealed the risks that blacks were prepared to take to have their