Managing the Growth of Small Business Ventures - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2538 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? TITLE: MANAGE THE DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL BUSINESS VENTURES 1.1 Inflation is a measure of the change of prices of goods and services over a period of time whereby it has lead to the increase in the price of cheese burger by the producer .and it has lesson the self- esteem of the Burger King to lower there price of cheese Burger.Burger king is forced to raise the price of the burger to increase in producers prices, however there has been no growth in consumer prices. Due to this , Burger king increases the sale but on the other hand they are facing problem in which they are paying more to the producers whereby cutting out on cheese burger for sale will enable them to cover up for the profit of the company. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Managing the Growth of Small Business Ventures" essay for you Create order 1.2assessment rate Sak strand bag impact business operations The consequence of interest rate on Sak Strandbags business operations has a negative effect as Profit of the Sak Strandbags will be affected massively due to the distribution of the profit in paying the interest rate .however this maybe a negative impact on the company as the controller of the Business might have to think twice before making any changes to the business until the interest rate Is being cleared off as to remain in providing the highest quality of products as to continue in there Success of the business. 1.3assess the implications of unemployment on Max Hamburger restrain business operations if they were to setup in New Zealand The expansion of Max Hamburger in New Zealand will be regardless as a positive move. In which they contribute more to economic growth moreover the company has been on existent for years. The expansion can answer job seekers in a way to be employed in the work market. As restaurant today most youth are employed in this field today as they are more preferred workers, fresh minds and replacement of employed people who have retired from the markets. 1.4 assesses the implications of investment expending on the business operations of Salvadors kiwi food and beverage co. Salvador Company faces difficulties in starting the business but on the other hand they were confident enough to turn it took positive thoughts. After a certain period the demand of the Salvador Company by the customer increase whereby the investment that needs to be taken must be made by the savings and all necessary requirements in order to maintain the profitability of the company. 1.5 Assesses the implications of business confidence on the business operations of glossy pink. The business owner of Glossy pink magazine was confident enough to create and contribute to a common goal and that is to attain customers and provide opportunities to company in regards to sale. They were effective in making results by inviting investors into the company to boast there sale. 1.6 assesses the possible implications of share market fluctuation on business operations of JVR. The share market of JVR Company can end up having a high esteem to the name as the sale system Is very effective. However by dealing with construction products it can provide more to economic stability of the country (New Zealand) , it is well known with a positive prospection in the contribution of sales and attraction of more investment. 1.7.1 Credit Availability is the amount of credit to which a borrower has accessibility in a given period of time. In addition it is the remaining amount after subtracting outstanding balance . However as from the Bank point of view credit availability may have a negative impact on borrower in the future with a positive impact on the current situation . In having innovation in creating new ideals is the most important way in which to reach a common goal of the business. 1.7.2 Gross Domestic Product is the market price of goods and services in a given period of time. In regard to the Wing Zone company they would likely face positive result with the current demand and excellent profitability of the country as the company is small . It can exceed more easily due to the demand. Moreover the company can make a better result in the future. 1.7.3 National Income is the total value or the final output of goods and services. In regards to the case study the company would make effective result whereby it provide more to student in regard to the service provided. In doing so they need to make essential and more availability in a way student can depend more on the service they provide which is the basic needs. Nature of the company will definitely be affected with knocking door on the National Income.is total amount of money earned within a country , in regard to Wing Zone company it could affect the National Income regard to the environmental location of the company and product they sell. It could be necessary basic need of student whereby it is necessary for the University. 1.7.4. Money Supply simply means the circulation /flow of money within the country at a given period of time. However with regards to Wing Zone Company it can be concluded that the company would benefit whereby the Reserve Bank of New Zealand review records in providing quality decision making. 1.7.5. International trade is the Exchange of goods and services with other country in case Wing Zone cannot attempt in regard to international trade but in a way to make the use of internet whereby they could actually sell their product out of the country. Moreover they could actually find market to buy their product in a cheaper price then buying locally. 1.7.6international Share Market system will not affect Wing Zone company whereby it can bring positive outcome due to the increase demand by customer and investor can be innovated with the creation of new ideas to expend the company. 1.7.7 Currency fluctuation- it affect of the company will be expensive and import product will be indirectly affected they can make a lose in importing. 1.7.8 Balance payment although the balance payment is added to the deflect over the past few year but it will rise over the years. Task 2 2.1 disposable income is simply the amount of money households have in to the business after spending and saving on income taxes since the business expanded in a large amount from one person but know they have more than 250 employers know . They also have a good name in the market since they won awards which is benefit for the company any person will love to purchases product them . the company was really hard working as well. 2.2 population trends- the population trend made by the company is really successful since the company has been gone high in the market. They started with really small business but they grew they name in the market by winning awards since young generation like to experience with their beer and this company has 17 different verities of beer recipe which leading the company really high in the market. 2.3 building permits it can really help the company in many since it really well developing in the market. The company can have more option in altering the location of the company and the structure of current location , expand and redesign which will help them by getting more customers into the business . 2.4 business surveys the business survey have research and have collected information on the alcohol industry and they are looking to customers demand and requirement toward the industry. So surveys can really help the business in many ways. Such as meeting customers demand and follow up accordingly to meet it. If the product are meeting the demand of the market the company will really get benefit in increasing of their profit. For that they have to meet the requirement in the industry. 2.5 specialist trade this factor its important in the company since they will be manage to allocate what they are really getting bad in. so the company will be able to manage it again in many ways. For example they can follow up with the marketing in many ways, improve their customer skills and recipe etc. Task 3 case study 9 : biofarm products ltd The biofarm ltd is a company which is specialist in producing natural foods. It is been certified organic since 1986 and second oldest commercial farm still operating. it a multicultural company we can say since most of the worker are not Maori but they respect they culture while they are employed they that company. The whanau, hapu and iwibring which simply mean its the pride of Maori. The business is also getting helping by non Maori workers they bring more ideas in the business and heading the business and they also show equal respect of the culture and back of biofram products in also import and export they product in varies countries. The work get the opportunity to work in this company and earn good money. TASK 4 SMALL BUSINESS LIFE CYCLES CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BUSINESS ACTIVITY DURING THIS CYCLE DESCRIPTION OF RELATED-BUSINESS ACTIVITIES UNDERTAKEN DURING THE CYCLE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES SHORT AND LONG RANGE PLAN Establishment Generally gives rise to income values added tax. If you making any mistake in the business you will manage to find out and correct the process While establishment you have to do proper plan in terms of sale and marketing Meet the requirements to bring new customers into the business and have lots of back up plans. Decline Consumer taste and technology erode sales Force the product into decline death Sales volume decline. See ways to revive business seeking for help. learn from the mistake and avoid loose Try to recover the weakness and stay in the business to achieve the goals also avoid the looses as well . Circumstance It market structures and characteristic. Meet the business its level ohh standard of their products etc Solving the business problem in difficulty time and making correct and right decision in future to run the same business in the market. Expansion The economic increases the demand for both capital and consumer goods. This is the place business know what is left in there expansion in the business where they carry out the process of expansion in the business. Bring new things into the business develop such as tools, staffs should are well educated in this area and expending the buildings. Growth In growth the market history is short and shifting. Improvement from mistakes. Doing thing more professionally. More attention on the customers attraction While the business is growing you have to keep its standard and demands . Task 5 5.1 The two problem solving method are: a) analogy- this thinking method is away of finding the solution through the comparisons. In this the process is base on the different facets of the problem to other problems which may or may not has similar facets. Analogy can go similarly like this like employer is been late coming to work quite often so how can I get to solve this problem to him to be at work on time. So I might motivate the staff by telling him about time management , the importance of work on time like for example image if he is a working in front officer in a hotel and guest did a wakeup call at 7am and the worker forgets about that. What can be the result if the guest was getting a flight to overseas and he miss out simply the worker have to pay for another flight in return the company wont be in charge in dealing in that case. That a easy lesson he can learn from the hotel staff situation. b) abstraction- is the effective problem problems solving techniques where concepts are used and classified in two types real and concrete. 5.2 identify how the following decision making techniques could help in making a decision about which option to choose to solve the problem 5.2.1 Break even the correct amount of product to sell to get amount you speeded on that product. 5.2.2. Decision tree- it simply shows how one choice leads to the other sits also support tool for the decision made by any company where the results and chance of resources are effectiveness on the company . 5.2.3 Payoff approach its mean the flow of cash in the company who ever are in charge of that data and systematic approach to make right decisions at right time. 5.2.4 Professional assistance- mean where the member are given assistance if the company is facing a professional cases. 5.2.5 Group decision making while making a group decision lot of new ideas will appear in the business and life so you have to focus on importing quality of decision made in groups to mix around your skill in to the business. 5.2.6 Cultural consensus methods- cultural knowledge will help to consider the business its rules and respect which you have to follow in order to fun the business successful certain company have certain rules and regulation. 5.3Formulate at least two (2) strategies which will assist in making a decision and take the appropriate actions. The strategies must consider the cultural appreciation and ethnic values and behavior of the following: 5.3.1 Maori owned operation and operated business the Maori business should studied there business really carefully since they really respect their land and the customer so inflect they will get more ideas by getting more employers in the business of other races who are living in new Zealand. They will gain a lot through import and export product throughout the business. Since outside people will bring more ideas in the business the owners will have bit difficulty in operation to manage the business due to new cultures influences but they have to scarify to run a successful business. To keep they name in the market. 5.3.2 Asian- owned and operated business the chiness and Japaneses are really smart to do they business in this world which everyone knows about it we can see in new Zealand from restaurant to clothing shop there product are really cheap and worth of it. Since they import system are cheap they bring heaps of product from their country and in return they also take product from new Zealand to their country. 5.4You are required to show how you would use the techniques at each stage including your solution to the problem being faced. 5.4.1 Owners who cannot get out of their own way. In some business the business model is focused on making decisions and taking action. Owners can benefits on decision making tree which make business really profitable and better than previous. 5.4.2 out of control growth- which really help the business to look on their future plans and action they want to take it even to keep everything in balance targets to meet there requirements in the business. 5.4.3 operational inefficiencies- to solve the problem company can use decision making techniques like company are paying bit much on their fix cost and need to make nice balance between payments. 5.4.4 dysfunctional management here company are really depended on their worker s to keep secret within the company. Employee should also cooperate with employers to have a success in business. 5.4.5 A declining market solving problem by not breaking the rules and law, dealing with situation professionally and seek help as well.

Essay on Juveniles Should Be Tried as Adults - 1993 Words

Dont do the crime, if you cant do the time. -- David Grusin and Morgan Ames Much controversy exists on the question of whether a juvenile criminal should be punished to the same extent as an adult. Those who commit capitol crimes, including adolescents, should be penalized according to the law. Age should not be a factor in the case of serious crimes. Many people claim that the child did not know any better, or that he was brought up with the conception that this behavior is acceptable. Although there is some truth to these allegations, the reality of this social issue is far more complex. Therefore we ask the question, Should childhood offenders of capitols crimes be treated as adults? To begin with, numerous reasons†¦show more content†¦Birth complications raised the likelihood that a child would have a criminal record by the time he was eighteen. Upbringing is also a key in molding young children (Seifert 45). In a 1988 study of serial killers, it was discovered that more than a third exhibited such destructive behavior as fire setting, cru elty to animals, and property destruction among youngsters. This same year, in a study of thirteen Murderers, ages thirteen to seventeen, it was found that more than half of these juveniles had signs of major brain dysfunction, resulting from falls, accidents,or other traumas (Seifert 34). Furthermore A mothers use of recreational drugs, alcohol, or tobacco during pregnancy has also been linked to her childs risk of future criminality. Antisocial children seem to have slower brain-wave activity and lower heart rates than their well-behaved peers (Seifert 67). Media violence is another factor in fostering aggression. That is, the violence that children are surrounded by everyday, including television violence, and witnessing abuse in the home and on the streets affects the child (Seifert 78). A fifteen year old boy from Savona shot his brother dead in a quarrel over a bottle of cold medicine (Seifert 104). Deanna Cremin of Somerville, MA was found dead behind an elderly housing complex. Her body was found half naked and strangled. She was a seventeen year old high school junior. It is believed that she knew her killerShow MoreRelatedShould Juveniles Be Tried as Adults?1017 Words   |  4 Pagesto be growing up earlier as the years go by. Serious crimes committed by juveniles have stayed pretty much the same in the last twenty years, but that is not to say people have not concluded differently. A thanks to laws passed in the ninety’s and more specifically between ninety two and ninety seven, It is easier to try juveniles as adults in the court system. There are multiple pros and cons to juveniles being tried as adult. These arguments range from a crime is a crime to they are not mentallyRead MoreShould Juveniles be tried as Adults?2030 Words   |  9 Pagesï » ¿Running Head: SHOULD JUVENILES BE TRIED AS ADULTS? Should Juveniles be tried as Adults? Should Juveniles be Tried as Adults? The law states that any person under the age of 18 is classified to be a juvenile and when they commit a crime they are tried in the juvenile court system. Although this is true with most cases there are times when the state will allow youths under the age of 18 to be tried as adults. This differs from state to state as eachRead MoreShould Juveniles Be Tried As Adults?4864 Words   |  20 PagesShould juveniles be tried as adults? In my opinion I think they should because when you turn a certain age, you gain certain privileges. â€Å"You achieve certain rewards such as voting rights, the ability to purchase a house, the ability to purchase tobacco products at the local gas station, but most importantly the ability to be held responsible for your actions. When you turn 18 a whole other world opens for you, and that’s because an 18-year-old is considered an adult in nearly every state, whichRead MoreShould A Juvenile Be Tried As An Adult? Essay1884 Words   |  8 Pag esevery day in the United States. Each year thousands of juveniles under the age of 18 are arrested. The debate of â€Å"should a juvenile be tried as an adult† is one for the ages. Many would like to argue against the idea as they believe firmly in rehabilitation. But what happens when the crimes are so violent that the family is unable to recognize the victim or when the juvenile shows no remorse and then goes on to harm others. At what age should one be held accountable for their actions? At what ageRead MoreJuveniles Should Be Tried As Adults1964 Words   |  8 Pagescommit an adult crime then you should be charged as an adult as well. Teenagers should be tried as adults for the violent crimes that they commit. In today’s generation, there are a lot of crimes taking place. Adults aren’t the only ones that are committing the crimes, teenagers are as well. If you are old enough to do the crime, you are old enough to do the time. Juveniles should be responsible for their own actions and they should be held accountable for the decisions they make. Juveniles do violentRead MoreJuveniles Should Not Be Tried As Adults1497 Words   |  6 PagesWhether juveniles should be tried as adults in the justice system or not, has been an ongoing debate for many people. There has been many cases throughout time where people under the age of 18 have been tried as adults in the justice system. Information about this debate can be found in articles, novels, and podcasts. Typically people who are under the age of 18 are identified as a juvenile delinquent and go through different procedures after committing a crime. There is many examples and evidenceRead MoreJuveniles Should Not Be Tried As Adults1494 Words   |  6 Pages Juveniles should not be tried as adults because it is proven that children are incapable of making a rational, mature decision on their own. Adolescents have a shorter experience in the world, their brains are still developing, they do not have the same responsibilities or rights as adults and they are easily influenced at this age. Let s say a child around the age of twelve is playing with two other friends at his house. His mother and father both work constantly so these children are alone.Read MoreShould Juveniles Be Tried as Adults896 Words   |  4 PagesQuestion: Should juvenile offenders be tried and punished as adults? Claim: Juvenile offenders shouldn’t be tried and punished as adults. I. Introduction a. There has been a lot of controversy over the issue of if juveniles should be tired and punished as adults. II. Harsh Policies Do not work http://physiciansforhumanrights.org/juvenile-justice/factsheets/youthasadults.pdf III. Adult Convictions Jeopardize Children’s Rights and Futures IV. Risks to Children’s Health V. These PoliciesRead MoreShould Juveniles Be Tried As Adults?2843 Words   |  12 PagesUnder most state laws, juvenile offenders do not commit crimes. They commit delinquent acts, some of which are acts that would constitute crimes if committed by an adult. The trial phase of a juvenile case is an adjudication hearing.(Should juveniles be tried as adults? (n.d.). Retrieved from https://malaysia.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20120602234650AAayOa2) This means that the judge listens to evidence presented and make the determination on whether the child is delinquent.The courtRead MoreShould Juvenile Be Tried As An Adult? Essay1887 Words   |  8 PagesA Juvenile Delinquent Heinous crimes are committed every day in the United States. Each year thousands of juveniles under the age of 18 are arrested. The debate of â€Å"should a juvenile be tried as an adult† is one of the ages. Many would like to argue against the idea as they believe firmly in rehabilitation. But what happens when the crimes are so violent the family is unable to recognize the victim, or when the juvenile shows no remorse and then goes on to harm others. At what age should one be

Renting vs Owning a Home Free Essays

Renting now can make things become easier later. Saving money is what everyone wants to do. Buying a home can not only hurt someone financially but it can put you in a bind that can have you paying a bill for the rest of your life. We will write a custom essay sample on Renting vs Owning a Home or any similar topic only for you Order Now The economy is on a decline right now so making the decision to buy a home can be a little tricky. Buying a home it is not a one time transaction. Once you have the home you continue to pay bills like your mortgage fees and maintenance. Think about all the money you have to come out of pocket to take care of some of the fees that will come when making a ecision to buy a home. Renting can put things in someone else’s hands to where you can save more money from your monthly payments. When renting an apartment you will never have to worry about fixing the plumbing, sink or dishwasher because maintenance is paid by the landlord. Not having these fees leaves you with more money in your bank account expanding your option for your home when you get to that decision. The decision to rent now and buy later can give you enough time to wait on the economy to get stronger and much better than it is now. Buying a home will be a much smoother process. Rent now and buy later is the best way to go, at this time in our economy. The question whether to rent an apartment or buy a home is probably one of the biggest. There are many people who are on both sides of the fence, as well as many good arguments towards both. There many advantages of renting the price, upkeep, qualifying. People believe renting is better than buying. The first reason is the economy, consider how many people have lost their homes, or are being foreclosed upon right now. Whether it’s because of losing a job, investing in the wrong company, or using some kind of lending service that went under after paying all that money into it. Why would you want to put yourself through any of that? The second reason for renting is why you would pay for expensive repairs, when someone else can. When buying a house and something breaks or is damaged, you are entitled to fix it on your own, but with apartments if something breaks down like the dishwasher, or stove or some other major appliance, the landlord must replace it. With renting you don’t have to worry about yard upkeep, it is the landlord’s job to keep and maintain the grounds. If there is a problem, the landlord has to deal with it, or your only responsibility is to maintain your personal space. Lastly the most important reason why you should rent an apartment is better than buying house. Having the ability to move when you want to especially if you’re single or get offered employment somewhere far, you wouldn’t have to worry about selling. If you get transferred, or lose your job, you’re not locked in to a monthly mortgage payment. In today’s real estate market, trying to sell a home could prove very costly. Even if you have to break your lease, it’s much better than defaulting on your mortgage. Renting gives great flexibility until you find a place you really want to stay at for a long time. If you’ve read all what I have written, you’ve learned a lot about housing choices! As you explore your own options for buying a home, you will need to learn more about the costs of home ownership, about how much you can afford, and about financing a home purchase. How to cite Renting vs Owning a Home, Essay examples

Student and Avoidance-oriented Coping Strategy free essay sample

Abstract The survey investigated the extent to which Brunei trainee teachers used the task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance-oriented coping strategies when in stressful situations. Data collection employed the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations. Participants consisted of 118 educational psychology student teachers at the University of Brunei Darussalam. Of these, 89 (75%) were females while 29 (25%) were males. The sample comprised of 71 (60%) BEd and 47 (40%) PGCE students. Overall, the task-oriented strategy was the most used coping method followed by the avoidance-oriented style. There were no significant gender and program of study differences in the way participants employed the three coping procedures. Age, gender, and program of study were not significantly correlated with the three coping strategies. The coping strategies were found to be distinct ways of reacting to and relieving stress according to the Brunei sample. Further mixed methods research was recommended to gain additional insights on the problem. Keywords: Stress, Coping, Strategies, Task, Emotion, Avoidance, Student teachers 1. Introduction Stress is a non-specific physiological reaction to internal and external demands made on the body (Selye, 1974). Not all stress is bad though. An optimum amount of stress (called positive stress) is required to keep a person challenged and energized (Student Support Services, 2007; Australian Counseling Association, 2007). In addition a small number of studies claim that people learn a few good lessons from some aspects of stress such as critical incident stress, CIS (Werner et al. , 1992). Furthermore there is also the so-called notion of stress related growth, SRG (Tassie Whelan, 2007) which supports the view that people learn and grow from stressful events. Despite these and other beneficial aspects of stress it appears that the disadvantages of stress far outnumber the advantages. There are many forms of stress (collectively known as negative stress) that are harmful. The three main dangerous types of stress include acute stress, chronic stress and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). For example severe, profound or catastrophic kinds of stress can lead to death through either suicide or stroke. Along with depression and anxiety, stress is to-date one of the three common mental health problems affecting university students worldwide (Benton et al. , 2003). For instance there are many student deaths attributed to suicide or stroke in universities. Like depression and anxiety, stress has many symptoms, causes and effects some of which are briefly discussed below to set the background. 1. 1 Causes of stress in university students There is a wide range of factors that contribute to stress in university students. The majority of the causes of stress seem to be person-age-situation specific. For instance people experience different stressors in different places (e. g. home context, school setting, and work environment). In addition children, adolescents, middle aged persons, and the old appear to have different stressors. The causes may be divided into three broad categories: environmental; psychological; and biological (Cohen et al. , 1995). Environmental causes of stress include adjusting to life in a new environment, studying in English, and culture shock (Pabiton, 2004) as well as loneliness or isolation (Pabiton, 2007). In developing countries, student mental health problems like stress are caused by a host of lifelong factors such as pressure of academic work, poverty, diseases, natural disasters, environmental hazards, war and the unrealistic expectations of parents and teachers (Ovunga et al. , 2006). In their recent study, Yates et al. (2008) found that some mental health problems occur before students enter a college or university. Examples of psychological factors that contribute to stress are revising for tests, sitting for examinations, meeting deadlines for coursework assessments, and repeated failure (Pabiton, 2007). Psychological causes also include the pressure of combining paid work with study, procrastinating, excessive workload as well as parents’ and students’ unrealistic expectations (Student Support Services, 2007). The 79 International Journal of Psychological Studies www. ccsenet. org/ijps biological causes include chronic sickness and poor health (Burns, 2003) and the role of biological factors such as the stress hormones and the autonomic nervous system (Jenkins et al. , 1990; Taylor, 1990; Amchin, 1991; Rathus Nevid, 1991). 1. 2 Effects of stress and coping strategies Most previous studies of stress coping strategies among university students were conducted in western countries, North America (US and Canada) and Australia. Some of these studies included Asian minority or foreign students in their samples (e. g. Iwasaki, 2003; Tassie Whelan, 2007). The studies done and published in the above countries including Asia (few only e. g. Burnard et al. , 2007a; b) dealt mainly with students other than trainee teachers. Studies of how Brunei student teachers react to stressful situations are still rare and the present investigation seeks to narrow this knowledge gap. Research indicates that stress has three main components (cognitive, affective and behavioral) and that long-term stress can have damaging effects on an individual’s physiology and mental health (Bartlett, 1998). Stress has many symptoms or effects on the body, the most severe or profound being: burnout; headaches e. g. migraines; hypertension; ulcers; insomnia; sexual dysfunction; menstrual disorders; and stroke or death (see Ogden, 2000; Kiecolt-Glaser Glaser, 1986; Burns, 2003; Rathus Nevid, 1991; Amchin, 1991; Australian Counseling Association, 2007). People (including student teachers) use a variety of coping strategies when in stressful situations. Researchers, in turn, also use a number of procedures to assess the effectiveness of coping strategies for stressful situations such as observations, interviews and self-report questionnaires. The most widely used are self-report instruments such as the Ways of Coping Checklist, WOCC (Folkman Lazarus, 1980; 1985; 1988) and the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations, CISS (Endler Parker, 1990). Coping strategies are ways or means by which stress and its impact may be avoided or reduced. Frydenberg (2008) says coping has many purposes and is a function of the person, situation, and perception of the situation {C = f (P + S+ PS)}. However, the present study only examined the coping strategies embedded in the CISS instrument (namely: task-oriented coping; emotion-oriented coping; and avoidance-oriented coping). According to the CISS technical manual (Endler Parker, 1990) task-oriented coping occurs when a stressed person engages in a task intended to reduce or remove the stressor (s). On the other hand, emotion-oriented coping takes place when a stressful individual reacts emotionally to stressors e. g. by crying or being sad or getting worried. There two forms of avoidant coping (distraction and social diversion). Both require the affected person to ignore the stressor thereby leaving the problem unresolved. These three forms of coping (task, emotion, and avoidant) closely resemble the three coping strategies (proactive, reactive, and nonproductive) measured by the Coping Scale for Adults (Frydenberg Lewis, 1997). For example task-oriented coping is in a way like proactive coping in that it is positivistic, multidimensional, and forward-looking or future-oriented. Emotion-oriented coping is, however, somewhat the same as reactive coping. These two forms of coping comparatively deal with past stressful events and seek to address the loss or harm that occurred previously. Emotion-coping strategy is perhaps most effective for people who are high on emotional intelligence. The last form of coping, avoidance, approximates nonproductive coping in that the person afflicted with stress ignores the stressor(s) and does nothing to resolve the causal problem(s). Nonproductive coping is harmful because it leads to dysfunctional life. Most tertiary students have academic stress which correlates positively with nonproductive coping (Frydenberg Lewis, 2001). 1. 3 Findings from selected previous stress coping studies The use of leisure as a relaxation technique was found to be effective with students in coping with stress (Iwasaki, 2003). However male students benefited more than females from leisure activities in alleviating stress (McKean Misra, 2000). Other variables or factors that were reported by the same authors to be effective in lowering academic stress are time management and anxiety reduction. McKean and Misra (2000) found that female students had more effective time management behaviors than males and profited more from it. In one study that was done in the Asian context (Philippines), Pabiton (2004) found that the students’ coping strategies for stressful academic situations included spending extra time on academic workload, joining study groups, seeking assistance from friends, and consulting with professors. In a more recent study, Pabiton (2007) found that students also sought help / advice from their significant others. This later finding concurs with the results of Chan and Lim’s (2006) study in another Asian country (Singapore) who observed that Asian adolescent students (regardless of their gender, age, or nationality) had lower preferences for formal sources of help such as teachers and counselors but tended to prefer informal sources of help such as friends, parents, or family members. However there are big differences. In China, Hsiaowen (2007) found that Chinese female students had more favorable attitudes toward seeking psychological help than their male counterparts. Despite this apparent resistance to seeking professional help, group counseling is one form of psychotherapy that seems to appeal to both secondary and tertiary Asian students. School counselors in Brunei Darussalam use this form of 80 International Journal of Psychological Studies Vol. 2, No. 1; June 2010 psychological intervention when providing career and academic counseling (see Yahya, 2005). Individual counseling is, however, still needed for severe, profound, or catastrophic cases involving acute stress, chronic stress, and PTSD. For more diagnostic information on all these, readers are referred to the American Psychiatric Association (2000) and the World Health Organization (2007). In addition, Hsiung (2003) created a website of virtual pamphlets used in counseling individual students by various universities that can be used by students for self-referral and voluntary counseling through bibliotherapy. 1. 4 Objectives of the study The present study sought to determine the extent to which Brunei trainee teachers utilized the three main coping strategies (task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance-oriented) postulated by Endler and Parker (1990). In addition the study also looked at the differences (by gender and program of study) in the way Brunei student teachers employed these three coping strategies. A further objective of the present study was to establish the relationship between the demographic variables (age, gender, and study program) and the three coping strategies (task-oriented, emotional-oriented and avoidant-oriented). 2. Method The field survey method was used to investigate the research problem. Like all other research strategies, field surveys have their own limitations. For instance the findings from field surveys may not show cause-and-effect relationships among the variables probed. Despite this and other disadvantages, the rationale for employing this research strategy was two-fold. First, the investigator wanted to use as respondents many trainee teachers taking a selected educational psychology course. Second, the researcher wanted to give on-the-spot assistance to participants who needed help to complete the data collection instrument properly in order to increase the number of usable returns. 2. 1 Sample The target population of the study were student teachers taking an educational psychology course taught by the researcher. The course had 125 students but only 118 were present on the day the instrument was administered. Of these, 29 (25%) were males while 89 (75%) were females. Seventy one (60%) of the students were on the BEd program while 47 (40%) were taking the PGCE course. The age of all the research participants ranged from 18 to 39 (Mean = 24. 6; SD = 5. 8). There was no statistically significant gender difference in age between males (Mean = 23. 2; SD = 4. 4) and females (Mean = 25. 0; SD = 6. 1) when the two-tailed t-test for independent groups was applied [t(116) = 1. 5, p . 05]. However the BEd Students (Mean 23. 5; SD = 6. 8) and PGCE students (Mean = 26. 3; SD = 3. 3) differed significantly in age [t(116) = -2. 66, p . 01]. 2. 2 Instrument Data for the study were collected with the adult version of the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS) developed by Endler and Parker (1990). This is a self-report paper and pencil measure of coping containing 48 items. Sixteen (16) items assess task-oriented coping and 16 items measure emotion-oriented coping. The avoidance scale is divided into two subscales: distraction (8 items) and social diversion (5 items). The three remaining items of the avoidance-oriented scale are filler items and therefore not included in the data scoring and analyses. All the three subscales were pretested on 60 similar students in the previous cohort and had good alpha reliability: task-oriented . 86; emotion-oriented . 79; and avoidance . 79. Internal consistency reliability estimated by Cronbach’s (1951) alpha is considered acceptable when in the . 70 . 80 range (Guilford Frutchter, 1978; Carmines Zeller, 1979). The three subscales’ construct validity indices assessed by average corrected item-total correlations were: . 48 (task-oriented); . 41 (emotional-oriented); and . 45 (avoidance-oriented). Psychometric theory holds that an item is valid if it correlates positively and highly with total scores of which it does not form a part (Rust Golombok, 1989). The minimum acceptable average non-spurious item-to-scale correlation as evidence of construct validity is . 30 (Gable, 1986; Gogolin Swartz, 1992). All the three scales are Likert-type instruments each with a 5-points response format (ranging from 1 = not at all, to 5 = very much). Because the trial sample had no problems in completing the instrument in English and the scales had good reliability and validity at the pilot phase, the CISS was not translated into Bahasa Melayu (main language of Brunei) and was used â€Å"as is†. A section (with three items) for collection of biographic data was added to the three subscales. 2. 3 Procedure Prior to administering the instrument, ethical conditions for participating in the study were verbally explained to the respondents. These included privacy, voluntary participation, anonymity, confidentiality, and protection from both psychological and physical harm. Students participated in the study on the basis of this verbal informed 81 International Journal of Psychological Studies www. ccsenet. org/ijps consent. They were also free to withdraw from the study at any point or stage. In addition the study met the ethical requirements of the University of Brunei Darussalam Research Committee and the Helsink Declaration on the use of human participants in research. 2. 4 Data Analysis The three subscales (Task, Emotion, and Avoidance) were scored according to instructions in the CISS technical manual (Endler Parker, 1990). Both raw data and transformed T-scores (Mean = 50; SD = 10) were used in this study. Raw data for each subscale were analyzed by descriptive statistics (mean, mode, median, standard deviation, and skewness) and inferential statistics (correlations and t-tests for independent groups). The higher the test score on anyone of the 3 subscales (task, emotion, and avoidance) the greater the degree of coping activity for the person or group on the corresponding coping dimension. Frequencies and percentages for the prevalence rates were based on T-scores. The two subscales of the avoidance coping orientation (distraction and social diversion) were not scored and analyzed separately in this study because they inter-correlate positively and strongly (see Bouteyre et al. , 2007). 3. Results 3. 1 Performance on the three subscales The descriptive statistics in Table 1 provide a brief quantitative outline of the sample’s performance on the three tests at the whole-group level. The coefficients of skewness and the standard deviation indices indicate respectively that the individual total raw scores were quite high and varied. Although the participants used all the three strategies, evidence from the three measures of central tendency shows that they relied more on the task-orientation followed by the avoidance strategies. These differences in preference for coping strategies are probed further below by gender and study program. 3. 2 Task-oriented coping strategies Task-oriented transformed coping scores, frequencies and percentages are presented in Table 2 by gender and study program. Thirty eight students (32 % of the overall sample) used the task-oriented coping strategy at above average level (T 55). Of these, 8 (7 %) males, 25 (21 %) females, 19 (16 %) BEd students, and 14 (12 %) PGCE participants used the task-oriented coping strategy from slightly above average (T = 56-60) to above average (T = 61-65) levels. Only 5 females (4 %, all PGCE students) used the task-oriented coping strategy intensely from much above average (T = 66-70) to very much above average (T 70). However, both the gender and program differences on task-oriented coping were statistically insignificant as indicated by the t-statistics in Tables 5-6 below. Overall, the mean scores in Table 1 indicated that the task-oriented coping was the most used strategy (T 56) by most of the participants (38 or 32% of the whole sample). The other participants (80 or 68 % of the whole sample) employed the task-oriented coping strategy at various levels of coping ranging from average (T = 45-55) to very much below average (T = 30). 3. 3 Emotion-oriented coping strategies T-scores, frequencies and percentages for emotion-oriented coping strategy are presented in Table 3 by gender and program of study. Although the participants’ mean score on the emotion-oriented coping strategy was lower than the mean on the task-oriented strategy, it can be observed from Table 3 that both genders and both program students relied on this strategy to some extent. In all, there were 33 students (28 % of the entire sample) of both genders (12 males and 21 females) whose use of the emotion-oriented coping strategy ranged from slightly above average (T = 56-60) to very much above average (T 70). However the number of BEd students (16) whose use of the emotion-oriented coping strategy ranged from slightly above average (T = 56-60) to very much above average (T 70) was almost the same as that of PGCE students (17). Again, these gender and program differences on emotion-oriented coping were proved to be statistically insignificant by t-statistics in Tables 5-6 below. Emotion-oriented coping was the third most used strategy (according to mean scores in Table 1) by 33 students or 28 % of all the participants with T 56. The rest of the students (85 or 72 % of all participants) used the emotion-oriented coping strategy at either the average (T = 45-55) or below average (T 45) levels. 3. 4 Avoidance-oriented coping strategies The avoidance-oriented coping scores and frequencies are presented in Table 4 by gender and study program. Only 4 females (all PGCE students) used the avoidance-oriented coping strategy at much above average level (T 82 International Journal of Psychological Studies Vol. 2, No. 1; June 2010 = 66-70) to very much above average level (T 70). The 27 participants who used the avoidance-oriented coping strategy at slightly above average level (T = 56-60) to above average level (T = 61-65) included 7 males (6% of the whole sample), 20 females (17%), 16 BEd students (14%), and 15 PGCE students (13%). Again, the t-test statistics yielded no significant differences by gender (Table 5). However there was a significant difference on avoidance-oriented coping strategy by study presented in Table 6 where PGCE students scored much higher than BEd students. In addition, evidence in Table 1 suggests that the avoidance-oriented coping strategy was the second most used strategy (T = 56) by both genders (31 students) and both program students (31). The majority of the participants (87 or 74% of the sample) variously used the avoidance-oriented coping strategy at the average (T = 45-55) and below average (T 45) levels. 3. 5 Gender differences in participants’ coping styles When grouped by gender, males and females did not differ significantly in the way they were oriented to the three main coping styles (task, emotion and avoidance). T-test analyses in Table 5 gave no significant differences. 3. 6 Differences in coping style by study program Table 6 shows that there was no significant difference in the way students on the two teacher education programs were oriented to two of the three coping strategies (task and emotion). However, PGCE students scored significantly higher than BEd students on the avoidance scale. 3. 7 Relationships between independent and dependent variables The study used three independent variables, IVs (age, gender, and study program) and three dependent variables, DVs (task, emotion, and avoidance). Inter-correlations between these variables are presented in Table 7. Low but statistically significant relationships were obtained on one pair of IVs (age vs. program) and on two pairs of DVs (task vs. emotion and task vs. avoidance). All the IVs were not significantly related to the DVs. 4. Discussion The study focused on three main coping strategies: task-oriented; emotion-oriented; and avoidance-oriented. These are, however, not the only coping strategies used by Brunei students. Brunei student teachers might be using other outlets for stressful events such as the family, sports, friends, massage, religion, bomos (traditional healers or therapists), hospitals, and so on that were not included in this investigation. Further research therefore needs to be conducted to determine the extent to which they use these other alternative sources of help. Task-oriented coping style was the most used coping strategy by participants in this study. The majority of students who used the task-oriented coping strategy were females (most of them on the BEd program). Task-oriented in this context refers to purposeful efforts aimed at solving the problem, cognitively restructuring the problem, or attempts to alter the situation (Endler Parker, 1990). The main emphasis is on the task or planning and on attempts to solve the problem. Stress and many other mental health problems are caused by a variety of factors as noted by Ovunga et al. (2006). Some of these stressful problems occur before a student goes to college or university (Yates et al. , 2008). The best way to solve stressful problems is therefore to prevent, if possible, the problems through task-oriented coping than to create or let the problems occur and then try to solve them. Not all problems can be prevented though. In view of the supposed effectiveness of the task coping mechanism, it is unclear why Brunei males in the present study were less interested in using this strategy. In Brunei, incorporating task-oriented coping skills in group counseling of male students might be helpful (Yahya, 2005). Group counseling appears to be strategy that may appeal to these trainee teachers that needs to be incorporated in counseling interventions to help them cope effectively with stressful situations. Both students who scored high and low on the task-oriented coping scale may benefit from counseling therapies that incorporate elements of task-focused solutions to stressful problems. Further qualitative research needs to be conducted to identify possible cultural and environmental factors that cause female BEd student teachers to rely more on the task-oriented coping strategy than the other categories of trainee teachers. A number of psychological problems that human beings have tend to be emotional in nature. Coping strategies and solutions to such problems are often of an emotional type. This might be the reason why human languages are usually rich in emotional (e. g. feeling) words or vocabulary. Despite this, the emotion-oriented coping was 83 International Journal of Psychological Studies www. ccsenet. org/ijps the least used coping strategy by research participants in this study. Emotion-focused coping refers to emotional reactions that are self-oriented (e. g. blaming the self, getting angry, getting tense, fantasizing, and day dreaming). In some cases the reaction actually increases the stress (e. g. becoming very upset or tense) and this might explain why this coping strategy may be less popular. Further research (both quantitative and qualitative) needs to be conducted to provide insights into reasons why the participants’ preference for emotion-oriented coping strategies was fairly high. One of the reasons for preferring this strategy is that it may be easier (though not the best thing to do) to unrealistically. React emotionally to a stressful problem than to address it. Emotions (e. g. crying and sadness) are produced mainly by an interaction of thoughts, feelings and beliefs (TFBs) and are thus difficult to control. This implies that research participants in this study who scored high on the emotion-oriented coping scale might benefit from counseling strategies that utilize cognitive-behavioral therapies to provide insights into why emotions, automatic thoughts, and irrational beliefs are never the best way to solve stressful problems. In their study, Yates et al. (2008) recommended that pastoral care mechanisms in higher education institutions need to be enhanced to identify and support potentially vulnerable students. The avoidance-oriented coping strategy was the second most used coping method by participants in this study. In the context of this study avoidance-oriented coping refers to activities and cognitive changes aimed at avoiding the stressful situation. This may occur via distracting oneself with other situations or tasks or via social diversion as a means of alleviating stress. The strategy may provide temporary relief from a problem but is ineffective since it leaves the stressor(s) unresolved. The avoidance-oriented coping strategy appealed most to female and older PGCE students with T-scores of 66 and above (Table 4). In addition PGCE students scored significantly higher on the avoidance coping variable than BEd students. These differences might partly be explained by previous research which indicates that Asian students like the avoidance-oriented coping strategy particularly the social diversion component (see Pabiton, 2004, 2007; Chan Lim, 2006). However, according to Frydenberg Lewis (2001) nonproductive and avoidance coping are not effective strategies. Age, gender and program of study were not significantly related to the three coping strategies (task, emotion and avoidance) according to evidence from this study. In view of this, these three demographical variables could not effectively be used in predicting the coping strategies of the research participants. This therefore implies that further research needs to be conducted to identify predictors of coping strategies in the Brunei context. Such information would be useful in planning appropriate counseling interventions. In the present study, the three coping strategies (task, emotion and avoidance) were quite independent of each other (as shown by the inter-scale correlations) and Brunei student teachers appear to have used them distinctively. This finding suggests that adherents to different coping strategies need different therapies when helping them through counseling. 5. Conclusion The knowledge of how people resolve their problem(s) is essential when counseling and helping individuals or groups to address their concerns. The present study investigated the extent to which Brunei trainee teachers used three coping strategies for stressful situations. Evidence showed that the task-oriented strategy was the most used coping method followed by the avoidance-oriented strategy. The emotion-oriented strategy was the least used. Participants did not differ significantly by either gender or program of study in the way they used the task and emotion coping strategies. However PGCE students scored significantly higher on the avoidance coping scale than their BEd counterparts. The results suggested that participants could benefit from counseling strategies that were non-overlapping but distinctively addressed each coping strategy. Further research was recommended to determine the specific ways in which participants used the task, emotion, and avoidance coping strategies including other alternative coping avenues. 6. Limitations of the study The exploratory study had some limitations. First, it was based on one small group of trainee teachers who took a course taught by the researcher. As such, the study had low external validity and the results could not be generalized to all the other student teachers at UBD. Second, interviews were not conducted to probe the reasons why students used the preferred coping strategies. Qualitative information might have helped identify other common coping strategies used by students in Brunei and reveal the extent to which their responses in the interview matched, differed from, or added to the data gathered by the CISS survey instrument. In so doing findings from the qualitative component would have enriched interpretations of the results from the quantitative survey. Third, the subscales were not correlated with other scales that measure similar constructs. Criterion-related validity would have demonstrated further the suitability of the subscales for use in the Brunei student teacher context. 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